Cultural Impacts on Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

Cultural Impacts on Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa (AN) Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder most commonly affecting adolescent women (Russell 1970, 132). The diagnostic criteria for anorexia is defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical manual of the American Psychiatric Association 4th ed (DSM-IV) as excessive dieting or exercise leading to extreme weight loss, a refusal to gain weight, disturbance in body shape perception and amenorrhea (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). It has been suggested that the psychopathologies behind AN arise from within a cultural framework, namely the Western culture (Bordo 1993, 141-145). The Western ideals of beauty and portrayal of a slim body type in relation to attractiveness and healthiness have perpetuated a culture of thinness and fat-phobia, from which AN manifests from extreme measures taken to achieve these conceptions (Bordo 1993, 146-149). Furthermore, in recent years AN has become a transcultural disorder, affecting non-Western cultures influenced by Western culture such as the Chi nese, Fijians and African Americans. Mass media has enabled widespread access to Western culture, resulting in a global culture phenomenon that has increased the incidence of eating disorders such as AN worldwide (Simpson, 2002, 66-67). In addition, cultural assimilation as well as cultural clash in those who must balance their traditional culture with the modern Western culture has been shown to contribute to a predisposition towards AN, as a result of self-conflicts and unstable self-identity (Shuriquie, 1999, 355). Finally, some have advocated for a more culturally sensitive definition of AN, which currently is thought to be Western-centric in its definition. Proponents advocate the consideration of individual sociocultural factors, notably unrelated to the culture of thinness, contributing to the development of AN within the context of local biologies (Simpson, 2002, 68-69). Thus AN must be analyzed from within a transcultural framework, one which encompasses the influences of t he Western culture on perceptions of the body as well as considers the specific cultural context, which sheds light on causes of AN. Anorexia is considered a Western culture-bound phenomenon as a result of the current sociopolitical demands placed upon women in regards to the ideals of beauty, body shapes, and feminism (Derenne and Beresin 2006, 257). The term culture-bound denotes a restriction of a phenomenon within a particular cultural group due to specific social, political, culture and psychological factors from within that culture (Prince 1985, 197-198). As most American women are preoccupied with their weight, AN could simply be an extreme manifestation of the nation-wide preoccupation with weight and body image (Lake 1999, 83-84). Historically, the concept of the ideal female body was fluid, changing with the political and economic climate, which affected cultural values and thus attitudes toward female bodies. During the colonial era, strong, fertile, able-bodied women were favoured, as they would be capable of assisting with chores as well as bearing many children to increase family size. Times changed in the 19th century with the introduction of a more comfortable lifestyle, when the waifish look became popular and women sported short hair, pants and a slender, androgynous look that symbolized feminism and liberation. Since then, there has been a cultural trend towards thinness, with famous models such as Twiggy becoming household idols, culminating in todays nation-wide obsession with weight-watching, calorie-counting and dieting (Derenne and Beresin 2006, 258-259). It is the mass media portrayal of the ideal thin female body as attractive, desirable and healthy that has further perpetuated the culture of thinness, targeting particularly vulnerable women young adolescents and teenage girls. Coincidentally, pre-teens, teenagers and adolescent females have the highest incidence of AN (Borzekowski 2005, 289). Recently, the incidence of AN has increased in pre-teen and teenage girls, as they are often the main target audience for a variety of media, which present unrealistic expect ations of their body shapes (Borzekowski 2005, 290-291). Fashion magazines often depict thin women as desirable and healthy, television ads promote the latest technological invention that helps a woman lose weight and the Internet offers countless websites with tips on eating healthy, keeping off the fat, appetite suppressants and 0 calorie dietary supplements. Particularly notable are the pro-anorexia websites that proclaim AN to be a lifestyle choice, offer advice on weight management, effective dieting strategies and community support encouraging AN (Derenne and Beresin 2006, 258-259) . This bombardment of social and cultural expectations to be thin in order to be attractive has predominated Western culture since the 19th century and has not only grown, but crossed cultural boundaries through communication via mass media to affect other cultural groups (Shuriquie 1999, 356-357). Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that the psychiatric problems behind AN may be described as a set o f particular symptoms that arise from within a cultural framework the Western culture of thinness. The origin of AN may have arisen from Western cultural values, but there have been an increasing number of reports of eating disorders such as AN in non-Western populations, challenging the notion that AN is a Western culture-bound syndrome. This trend is attributed to the exposure of non-Western cultures to Western culture via mass media. One study has shown that Hispanic and South African girls exhibit AN, influenced by their exposure to Western media, suggesting that AN transcends cultural and socioeconomic boundaries (Nasser 1994, 26-27). It was previously believed that the mentioned group of people were protected from modern Western influences, due to their traditions of embracing larger, full-bodied women. Yet, a study conducted by Becker (Becker 2002, 509) found that the women of a group of islanders hailing from the South Pacific Ocean, the Fijians, have been heavily influenced by the Western culture of thinness. There were no reports of eating disorders in the Fijian populat ion until 1995, when an international television station was broadcasted for the first time, depicting Western media. Three years later, reports of dissatisifation with body image, attempts to control weight such as dieting and self-induced vomiting were heard, suggesting that these Fijian women were significantly affected by the Western cultural ideals of the perfect body and perhaps could not distinguish between the idealism and concepts of perfection that television presented and reality. Despite a tradition of favourably viewing full-bodied women (Becker 1995, 27-29), a few years of exposure to Western cultural and perceptions of beauty have negatively impacted the Fijians. Anthropologists have studied the reasons behind the heavy influence of Western culture and have suggested that less developed, non-Western populations such as the Fijians regard the values portrayed by Western culture as symbols of socioeconomic progression, high social status and social acceptance (Shuriquie 1999, 358-360) and thus strive to emulate and assimilate Western culture values within their local cultures. Streigel-Moore points out that even African American groups within the United States have shown increasing incidence of AN, stemming from a desire to participate in the white world (Striegel-Moore 2003, 1326-1328). Similarly, a study conducted by Nasser on the prevalence of AN in teenage Egyptian girls in Cairo indicated that traditional Egyptian values of larger, fertile women have not conferred protective effects from the assimilation of Western conceptions of the ideal body type via mass media in young Egyptian women (Nasser 1994, 28-30). These findings highlight a phenomenon known as global culture, where the world is connected via media, allowing cultural values to be readily accessible by other cultures across the globe (Banks 1992, 867). In this instance, global culture has contributed to the rising incidences of eating disorders such as AN, which has ultimately becom e a transcultural disorder that is not limited by cultural boundaries. In addition to the global cultural phenomenon, some have argued that those immigrating to the West from non-Western cultures experience cultural clash, leading to greater risk of psychiatric disorders such as AN (Lee 1996, 21-23). Studies have indicated that those who are assimilated into Western culture are less impacted by media-driven concepts such as dieting and maintaining a slender frame than those who choose to maintain their own cultural values while living in a Western culture. Culture clash occurs when an individual adopts two cultural systems, which are often in conflict. Mumford and Whitehouse have shown that Asian girls in the United Kingdom that have not acculturated struggle to balance their beliefs and attitudes at home, where their traditional culture dominantes, and at school, where there is pressure to conform to the norms of the Western culture (Mumford and Whitehouse 1991, 222-225). Unfortunately, the unrealistic expectations of body shape is often taken as the n orm in individuals affected by this cultural clash, leading to increased vulnerability to the negative influences of Western culture on body image and subsequently increased susceptibility to AN. These findings interestingly point to the influence of a non-Western culture within the context of Western culture not as protective, but exacerbative of eating disorders. Although the phenomena of global culture and culture clash demonstrate the extensiveness and impact of Western cultural values on the rest of the world, it has been argued that attributing the cause and symptoms of AN solely to the sociocultural influence of the West may be inaccurate. The culture of thinness may be pervasive, but it is not the sole explanation for AN. Simpson claims that the prevailing biomedical definition of anorexia as a psychiatric disorder characterized by fat phobia and a distorted perspective on body image is itself a cultural construction within the confines of the Western culture (Simpson 2002, 66-70). This suggests a need to adopt a culturally-sensitive definition of AN, one which stems from within the context of local biologies rather a universal framework. Fat-phobia is currently the defining characteristic in AN, but there have been accounts of those with an eating disorder very similar to AN, except for the obvious lack of fat-phobia. Simpson presents reports of Chinese women suffering from AN who do not report fat-phobia. Rather, they attribute chronic epigastric bloating and a loss of appetite to their disinclination to eat (Simpson 2002, 68). In another case, a woman refuses to eat after being separated from her boyfriend, citing abdominal discomforts and a disinterest in food (Simpson 2002, 68). These psychosomatic symptoms are a result of somatization (Kleinman 1989, 57), where the illness symptoms of AN manifests from social problems, rather than any dissatisfaction of body shape. Psychosomatic symptoms are commonly reported in the Chinese population and contribute to the etiology of AN, although they are not included in the DSM-IV criteria. Furthermore, some women from conservative religious fundamentalist backgrounds have been cited to abstain from food, as a result of their beliefs about food, the body, femininity and spirituality (Simpson 2002, 68). Similarly, Mogul discusses a case where an anorexic patient refused foo d and fasted to the point of emaciation due to a religious belief that attainment of the highest spirituality and freedom from materialism came with a rejection of the temptations of food (Mogul 1980, 51). Thus, explaining AN within a Western cultural framework establishes a limited perspective of the disorder that does not take into account the personal, sociocultural factors within local biologies that contribute to various forms of AN. Ultimately, AN is not a universal disorder, but a transcultural disorder. AN should not be viewed within the confines of any one culture, but rather understood to be a cross-cultural phenomenon. Essentially, AN is a psychiatric disorder with multi-factorial causes, requiring the incorporation of the Western cultural preoccupation with fat-phobia and unrealistic body shape expectations and the cross-cultural psychological and sociocultural reasons within local biologies to arrive at a holistic and culture-sensitive definition. References Russell, Gerald F. M. 1970. Anorexia nervosa: Its identity as an illness and its treatment. In Modern Trends in Psychological Medicine. Butterworths: London. American Psychiatric Association. 1994. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: AMA. Bordo, S. 1993. Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body. University of California Press. Simpson, K. J. 2002. Anorexia nervosa and culture. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 9, 65-71. Shuriquie, N. 1999. Eating disorders: a transcultural perspective. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 5(2):354-360. Derenne, J. L. and Beresin, E. V. 2006. Body Image, Media, and Eating Disorders. Academic Psychiatry. 30:257-261. Prince, R. 1985. The concept of culture-bound syndromes: anorexia and brainfag. Social Science and Medicine. 21:197-203. Lake, A. J., Staiger, P. K. Glowinksi, H. 1999. Effect of Western Culture on Womens Attitudes to Eating and Perceptions of Body Shape. International Journal of Eating Disorders. 27:83-89. Borzekowski, D. L., Bayer, A. M. 2005. Body image and media use among adolescents. Adolescent Medicine. 16:289-313. Nasser, M. 1994. Screening for abnormal eating attitudes in a population of Egyptian secondary-school girls.Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology. 29:25-30. Becker, A. E., Burwell, R. A., Gilman, S. E. et al. 2002. Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. British Journal of Psychiatry. 180:509-514. Becker, A. 1995. Body Imagery, ideals and Cultivation: Discourses on Alienation and Integration. In Body Self and Society: The View from Fiji. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press. Striegel-Moore, R. H. 2003. Eating Disorders in White and Black Women. American Journal of Psychiatry. 160:1326-1331. Banks, C. G. 1992. Culture in Culture-Bound Syndromes: The Case of Anorexia Nervosa. Social Science and Medicine. 34(8):867-884. Lee, S. 1996. Reconsidering the status of anorexia nervosa as a Western culture-bound syndrome. Social Science and Medicine. 42:21-34. Mumford, D. B., Whitehouse, A. M. 1991. Sociocultural correlates of eating disorders among Asian school girls in Bradford.British Journal of Psychiatry. 158:222-228. Kleinman, A. 1989. The Illness Narratives: Suffering, Healing, And The Human Condition. Basic Books. Mogul, S. L. 1980. Asceticism in adolescence and anorexia nervosa. Psychoanalytical Studies on Children. 35:155-175.

One Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest: Power Essay -- essays research papers

One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest: Power Peoples' ability to use power to control and manipulate situations and people is a skill not many people have. Unfortunately this skill can lead to conflict as it did in Ken Kesely's novel One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest when McMurphy and Nurse Ratched meet each other. McMurphy has been after Nurse Ratched's power right from the beginning. After the first group meeting he pointed out that the meeting was like a "pecking party". The Nurse starts it with pointing out something wrong with someone and then the men join in with their criticism. Her book was the same idea. The men would listen to each other and when one said something that they shouldn't have they write it down so it can be brought up for "therapeutic reasons", but when McMurphy came all that changed. That made the nurse furious, that was her way of keeping perfect control and power over the patients. McMurphy had complete power over the patients from when he first came in. Nobody like him had ever been in the ward before. He came in singing and laughing, something that no one had heard in a long time. He walked around the room shaking hands, introducing himself to everyone, even the chronics. He taught the acutes how to play cards and he taught them to gamble. His very first bet though was that he could get the best of nurse Ratched within the week, and he did. She...

Behavioral Differences in Humans Essay -- Diversity Development Gender

Behavioral Differences in Humans How do people behave? What makes us act the way we do? There are as many different answers as there are people. Each person is a unique makeup of individual characteristics which blend together to form the personality, the behavior of the person. We can identify certain broad characteristics of groups of people and apply them to individuals to get an idea of how they will behave in a given situation. This is called stereotyping and, when taken too far, will give a distorted picture of what to expect of a persons behavior. While you can never get a fully accurate picture of how someone will behave based on their demographics and characteristics, you can make certain general guesses that will point you generally in the right direction regarding their behavior. The most popular and fun characteristic to use to point to behavioral differences is probably gender. Numerous books have been written about the differences between men and women. Certain broad characteristics are identified that point at the broad gap in perspective that each gender has in viewing the world. A man sees a room and may see the functionality of it; what is the room’s use, its purpose. Does the room meet the requirements for fulfilling that purpose? What improvements can be made to better use this room? What is the quality of construction of this room? A woman sees the room and sees the color. How does the room look? How does she feel in that room? She envisions her family in that room, her friends. These are broad differences and may not be wholly accurate in the individual case, but in the genders in general, this will prove to be fairly representative of the behavior of the two populations. I tend to agree with scientists who study the human brain to try to identify the differences between the genders. According to studies, there is a greater link between the left and right hand sides of the brain in women than in men. The right hand side of the brain is broadly in charge of creativity and emotion; the left hand side of the brain of calculation and reason. This gives women broader access to their creative and emotional aspects than men and makes them perceive the world differently. I believe this difference in perspective explains much of the difference between genders and can explain much of the differences in behavior. This is still a general ... ...f the world there is some religious tradition among all of them. The atheist believes that there is no god. Is this built on more evidence than the man who holds cows to be sacred? Can it be scientifically proven that there is no god? One tenet of logic says that it is impossible to prove a negative. The atheist therefore is practicing a different form of religion. Ultimately, religion guides your behavior because it answers the question what happens when I die. If you feel that your actions in this life govern your lot in your next reincarnation, you will behave accordingly. If you feel that when you die your body simply rots in the casket and nothing survives, this also guides your behavior. If you feel that if you kill infidels you will be rewarded with seventy virgins for your eternal afterlife, you will alter your behavior. If you feel that your actions here are monitored by a God who balances justice and rewards according to those actions either with eternal paradise or ete rnal hell your behavior is governed by that belief. While some may represent themselves to be of one religion or another, their actions reveal their true beliefs about what happens to them when they die.

Knowledge Based Systems

What is a knowledge-based system? A system which is built around a knowledge base. i. e. a collection of knowledge, taken from a human, and stored in such a way that the system can reason with it. Example: System: What is the patient's name? User: George Smith System: What is the patient's age? User: 52 years System: Is the patient male or female? User: Male System: What are the symptoms? User: Headache dizziness upset stomach high fever System: When did these symptoms first appear? User: 23/03/2002System: I conclude that the patient has a viral infection , my recommendation is that he should take two aspirin, drink plenty of fluid, get lots of rest. What is knowledge? Knowledge is the sort of information that people use to solve problems. Knowledge includes facts, concepts, procedures, models, heuristics, etc. Knowledge may be: * specific or general * exact or fuzzy * procedural or declarative What is an expert system? * A particular kind of knowledge-based system * One in which the knowledge, stored in the knowledge base, has been taken from an expert in some particular field.Therefore, an expert system can, to a certain extent, act as a substitute for the expert from whom the knowledge was taken. What is Artificial Intelligence? Artificial Intelligence (AI) is concerned with exploring such aspects of human (and other animal) mental activity as: * understanding * creativity * Perception * problem-solving * consciousness * using language * Intelligence by simulating them using computers. It is therefore closely connected with such social sciences as: * psychology * linguistics * philosophy Applied Artificial IntelligenceWhat is applied AI? Applied AI is concerned with producing software which is â€Å"intelligent† It is intelligent in that it is based on what we know about human reasoning and other mental abilities We are therefore talking about a branch of advanced computing – computer technology – rather than social science Knowledge eng ineering The term â€Å"knowledge engineering† is often used to mean the process of designing, building and installing an expert system or other knowledge-based system. Some authors use the term to mean just the knowledge acquisition phase. ExpertsAn expert is an experienced practitioner in his/her particular field. More than that, he/she is a highly effective problem-solver and decision-taker in that field. Experts have three qualities: * They make good decisions * They make those decisions quickly * They are able to cope with a wide range of problems. Experts and expert systems Note that: The task that an expert system performs will generally be regarded as difficult. An expert system almost always operates in a rather narrow field of knowledge. The field of knowledge is called the knowledge domain of the system.There are many fields where expert systems can usefully be built. There are also many fields where they can’t. Note also that an expert can usually explain a nd justify his/her decisions. Reasons for building an E. S. One might build an expert system for any or all of the following reasons: * To archive an expert’s knowledge, to insure against the day when he/she leaves, or retires, or dies. * To disseminate his/her knowledge, so that it is available in more (possibly many more) places than the location of the expert. * To ensure uniformity of advice/decisions. As a basis for training other specialists. Advantages of expert systems E. S. have the following advantages over human experts: * The knowledge is permanent * The knowledge is easily replicated * The knowledge is represented explicitly, and can be evaluated * The system is consistent – whereas human practitioners have bad days, computers don’t. * Once built, running costs are low Disadvantages of expert systems a) Developing an expert system usually costs a great deal of time & money b) Historically, there has been a high failure rate in E.S. projects * The pr oject may well fail during development – most likely during the â€Å"knowledge acquisition† phase. * The development may succeed, but the organisation may fail to accept and use the finished system. c) A human expert can update his/her knowledge in the light of * Common sense * Knowledge derived from other domain * Contacts with other experts. An expert system can’t. Choosing an E. S. project a) Because of cost, and the danger of failure, it is important that E. S. projects are carefully chosen. ) The expense must be justified, in the light of the possible benefits. c) E. S. technology must be appropriate a. the right kind of expertise is involved b. Make sure it isn’t a problem which conventional programming could do better. d) Management, and the participants, must support the project fully. Possible expert systems – case histories For discussion; The following seven problem areas may, or may not, be suitable for computerisation as expert system s. * A certain third world country has a large population, very few trained doctors, and insufficient resources to train many more.It is proposed to provide paramedics, who can be trained relatively cheaply and easily, with medical kits and portable PCs, each PC to be loaded with an expert system that can advise on the diagnosis and treatment of a variety of common diseases. * The housing department in a provincial English town is overworked, although the staff turnover is quite low. Much of the work the staff do involves interviewing clients, and there is a clear pattern of questioning (which varies to a limited degree, depending on the circumstances of the client). It is proposed to build an expert system, which will direct the questioning process. A firm of wine importers relies heavily on its chief wine expert, who is skilled at selecting wines that are destined to be popular, on the basis of their taste, colour, scent etc. She is soon to retire. It is proposed to build an exper t system that will enable any of several junior wine specialists to do her job. * An education authority has a severe shortage of primary school teachers. It is proposed that an expert system should be built which can do the job of teaching English and arithmetic to five year old children. * A software company proposes to build an expert system which can perform book-keeping for small commercial concerns. A large manufacturer of diesel electric locomotives has problems in providing enough maintenance personnel who are sufficiently skilled to locate faults in these (highly complex) locomotives. They propose to build an expert system which can perform fault location on such a machine. * A mineral exploitation company wishes to extend its operations, which involve searching for hitherto undiscovered deposits of valuable metal ores. It is short of trained geologists. It proposes to build an expert system which can assess a geological site and come to a conclusion about how likely it is that there is a worthwhile mineral deposit there.

Plastic Pollution and Measures to Control

Pollution caused by plastic CONTENTS 1. Aim 2. Introduction 3. What is plastic? 4. Environmental hazards caused by plastic 5. Measures to control pollution 6. Industries that produce plastic in India 7. Importance Of Plastic Industry Toward Economic Growth 8. Ban On Plastics In India 9. Cost Benefit Analysis 10. Conclusion 11. References Page 3 Pollution caused by plastic AIM To make a comparative study of plastics and its effect on the environment. To analyze and understand the importance of introducing effective measures to control pollution.INTRODUCTION Plastics have become a necessary commodity in today’s world. Everyone knowingly or unknowingly uses plastic substances. Karki (2008) discusses that plastic is used not only for making plastic bags but also for producing products that cover parts of vehicles that need to be protected. Karki (2008) reveals that plastics are synthetic substances that are the outcome of chemical reactions. It is a non-biodegradable substance tha t takes more than 100 years to decompose. It poses a threat to humans and animals.Once plastic materials are disposed off into the environment they end up in our waters ways, beaches and larger water bodies, thus harming our aquatic life. If plastic materials is burnt it releases toxic fumes into the atmosphere causing air pollution. Over the years plastic has become a substitute for packaging materials such as paper bags or cloth bags primarily due to its low cost as well as the ease involved in the manufacturing process, weight and availability (Karki, 2008). PLASTIC Plastic are synthetic substance made from chemical reaction. Plastics are made from petroleum.Plastic are polymers that consist of monomers linked by chemical bonds. These monomers are petrochemical substances that are not biodegradable. Page 4 Pollution caused by plastic ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS CAUSED BY PLASTIC Although there are various sources that lead to different types of pollution we are concentrating mainly on plastic materials as a pollutant. Based on the above information we know that plastic is a hazardous commodity that leads to land, water and air pollution. Although briefly explained above lets now go in-depth and understand how plastic affects land, water as well as air pollution. LAND POLLUTIONPlastic substances are used by many around the world and in a developing country with a huge population like India, the use of such materials is bound to be more. Since a lot of people use plastics for their day to day activities, the disposal of plastic products will also be high and to be honest a lot of us throw plastic bags or containers on the road. This leads to land pollution. So what is land pollution? Encyclopedia Britanica (Land Pollution, 2010) describes land pollution as the addition of unwanted materials that pose a threat to the organisms, decrease the soils fertility and have an adverse effect on the health of human being.Animals die due to plastic substances by simply consumi ng them, the plastic gets clogged in their bodies and ultimately results in the death of these few animals. Further on, the collection of these materials gives an â€Å"untidy and dirty look† to the area. These materials find their way to our water systems and larger water bodies leading to water pollution. WATER POLLUTION Encyclopedia Britannica (Water Pollution, 2010). Most of the water pollution resulting from plastic is generated from land. 60% to 80% of water pollution is from plastic litter . Once in the water these materials pose a serious threat to our aquatic life.Fish, sea turtles and other aquatic inhabitants can get entangled in plastic materials and can inflict serious pain, injury and even death. Marine organisms that have been killed by plastic substances decompose fast, but the plastic that kills them takes a long time to decompose, thus increasing the risk of other marine life consuming the same material, resulting in its death Encyclopedia Britanica (Water P ollution, Page 5 Pollution caused by plastic 2010). In a real case scenario a whale in Europe was found dead and its autopsy results show that its stomach was filled with plastic materials. AIR POLLUTIONAccording to the World Health Organisation about two million people die every year due to air pollution, many suffer from heart diseases, lung deceases and some even cancer. There are various sources of air pollution like carbon dioxide, combustion of fuels in vehicles, fuels from jets, toxic elements from factories etc. Plastics also contribute to air pollution. Plastics that are found on the road or even dumping sites are burnt therefore releasing toxic fumes into the atmosphere, polluting the air. When individuals are exposed to the polluted atmosphere they contact various diseases that could ultimately lead to their death.MEASURES TO CONTROL POLLUTION Hanh (1992) Plastic is a bane to our existence on this earth. It pollutes the atmosphere with its harmful fumes, poses a serious t hreat to our marine life and apart from this it also creates litter, making the place look dirty. With the above evidence we can boldly say that Hanh’s literature is true. There are various measures that can be undertaken to reduce plastic pollution but we would be focusing only on three criteria namely: 1. Recycling of Plastic 2. Government policies 3. Personal measures. RECYCLING OF PLASTICSNair (2010) reveals that around 10,000 types of plastics are used in the manufacture of various products such as pet bottles, toys and even clothes. This in turn result in these materials being dumped around at public places and become waste which as we all know has a negative impact on the environment and all its contents because of its non-degradable substances . Hence, recycling of plastic materials was introduced. So what is plastic recycling? The act of producing new products from waste plastic materials is plastic recycling. (Nair, 2010). Let’s now look into Page 6 Pollution caused by plastic the benefits of recycling plastic.Petroleum is used in the manufacturing of plastic. Hence, if plastic is recycled, consumption of petroleum – a resource which is slowly depleting, will also be decreased (Nair, 2010). Since petroleum is a key ingredient in the manufacture of plastic, when burnt greenhouse gasses are released into the atmosphere. Hence, if plastic is recycled it will lead to a decrease in the level of greenhouse gasses emitted into the atmosphere. Nair (2010) gives us another beneficial factor in the recycling of plastic is there will be a decrease in animals, birds and aquatic life dying due to plastic not being digested.Further on if plastic is recycled landfill space can be saved. Recycling one ton of plastic saves energy that is used by two humans in twelve months and also water that a single individual consumes in two months and saves two hundred pounds of petroleum (Nair, 2010). Having now understood the importance of recycling plastic let’s try to make this world a better place by implementing this concept at home. GOVERNMENT POLICIES Many countries have banned the use of plastic. In India many states have done the same depending on their height and thickness namely Goa, Maharashtra, Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan and some others.For example Goa has increased the minimum thickness of plastic carry bags to 40 microns. Public awareness programs have been conducted to educate individuals on effective ways of disposing of plastic materials. On 29th January 2010, the supreme court denied a plea to lift the ban on the use of plastic bags by the All India Plastic Manufacturers Association. This shows the seriousness of the government in making the environment a â€Å"greener† place not only for us but also for the generations to come. But do these bans really work?For example three years ago West Bengal banned the use of plastic bags which were less than 40 microns thick, but this rule was clearly violated in m arkets, streets and other public places as plastic bags were being used. To tackle this nuisance they reconstructed their plastic management committee last month. Assam faced similar problems as not much was done to ensure that plastic bags were not used. Now the Government is going to take various steps to ensure that plastic bags are not used at all. These steps include monitoring shop keepers and business men who have not been abidingPage 7 Pollution caused by plastic by the law. They would also impose a penalty which could be a fine not only on the retailer but also on the customer. In Delhi a huge amount of plastic bags were seized from shop keepers and have initiated a â€Å"say no to Plastic Bags† campaign. To prove their seriousness towards the ban they penalized Bata footwear with a fine of one lakh rupees. Rajasthan is the newest state to join the clan after banning the use of plastic bags on August 1st, 2010. They also revealed that offender would be fined one lakh and/ or five years in jail.PERSONAL MEASURES Individuals should also contribute towards the elimination of plastic as it us and other living organisms around us who ultimately suffer. Hanh (1992) We can start by refusing to take plastic bags from grocers, because if this is done then plastic manufacturers would reduce the amount of plastic bags they produce. In today’s world many people do not have time to cook meals so they resort to ordering their meals from restaurants, who pack their food in plastic containers, these restaurants should start using sustainable containers, similarly with beverages.People who use items like Tupper ware products should substitute it with a degradable substance. Public can also educate retailers about the dangers about plastic and encourage them to change their practices (Hanh, 1992). And finally we can start by eliminating the use of plastic in our own house, work place, school/college etc. INDUSTRIES THAT PRODUCE PLASTICS IN INDIA India is one of the countries that consume more plastics in the world. India ranks third in consumption of plastic. Growth of plastic industry is more than 14%. Petrochemical department in India is in process to setup development council for plastic manufacturing industries. 00% foreign direct investment is allowed in plastic processing and manufacturing industry. Industries like Finolex industries ltd, Plastiblends India ltd, AGA group international, Corporate resource group, ACRY plus (Matias, 2010) etc†¦ are some of the industries that produce plastics products in India. There are many international companies that manufacture plastics in India they are GE plastic, LG polymers, Bayer ABS, Compounding, Clariant etc†¦ These industries produce polymers, PVC pipes, plastic sheets, polycarbonate sheets. Page 8 Pollution caused by plastic IMPORTANCE GROWTHAs India is a developing country it’s difficult for government to ban plastic usage with immediate effect. Plastic industry c ontributes more towards the growth of the economy so it’s important for the government to take effective decision that doesn’t affect the economy. Plastic industry has strong correlation with growth of the economy. Plastics have multiple advantages in its usage. It can be used in various range of applications. It has more favorable cost-benefit ratio. Continuous improvement in the technology of producing plastics has made the users addict to it. OF PLASTIC INDUSTRY TOWARD ECONOMIC BAN ON PLASTICS IN INDIAEven though the plastic manufacturing industry grow at more than 14 percentage state government have banned plastic that has below 20 microns. The Supreme Court has ordered ban on plastic in New Delhi, West Bengal pollution control board has banned manufacture, sale and use of plastic bags, Jammu Kashmir has also banned polythene carry bags, Himachal Pradesh government have banned plastic bags. COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS In cost-benefit analysis, money is used to measure pr ivate, external and social cost. Private costs are the cost that the firm earns as profit, many large scale and small scale industries are involved in manufacturing of plastics.Plastics industry have growth rate of more than 14 percentage. This shows how much growth potential plastic industry has in India. External costs here are costs that are lost by the firms, farmers because of plastic pollution. The social cost that is equal to the private and external costs. The total cost to clean the river Ganga basin only contributes to 15000 crores. There are different types of costs-benefit analysis like Economic cost benefit analysis, expenditure cost analysis, cost-efficient analysis. Cost-benefit analysis can provide information about to use or not to use the resources.Page 9 Pollution caused by plastic CONCLUSION The study reveals about the growth that plastic industries have and pollution caused by the industries. Government must take effective measure that to recycle plastics and ma ke sure it doesn’t affect the environment. Plastic industries in India are providing many job opportunities, but it also affect the environment, recycling plastic has to be done. Industries or organization must take effective measure to recycle plastics and make sure that it doesn’t affect the environment.New technologies must be invented as an alternative use for plastic as petroleum is used in manufacturing plastic. Page 10 Pollution caused by plasticREFERENCES Karki, K. (2008). Plastic as a Source of Environmental Pollution What is The Sollution? http://www. articlesbase. com/plastic-surgeries-articles/plastic-as-a-source-of-environmental-pollution-whatis-the-solution-610752. html Plastic Pollution. (2010). Encyclopedia Britannica. Hanh, T. Peace Is Every Step (1992, p. 108) Nair, S. (2010). Benefits of Recycling Plastic.

Alfred Wallace

The scientific understanding of life has been shaped with the guidance of intellectual breakthroughs in history. One of these breakthroughs Is Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913), a British naturalist born in Monotheistic, England who gained a reputation of greatness upon exploration of Malay Archipelago. Unlike other great Intellects Like Charles Darwin, Wallace had dropped his formal schooling at the age of fourteen to start providing for his family as a carpenter.Later In life Wallace acquires a job at the Collegiate school of Leister teaching, and it is here that he tests Henry Walter Bates, a naturalist who sparks Wallach's interest in nature. Alfred Russell Wallace is known to have advocate the the theory of intelligent evolution and co-discover natural selection alongside Charles Dawn. This theory suggests that evolution is purely built for utility and only occurs when changes are necessary for survival and purposeful. Wallace writes a letter to Darwin stating his theory, and c learly impacts him to write â€Å"Origin of Species†.Wallace becomes a spiritualist In 1860 and began to believe In theology. Wallach's new beliefs lead him to reject scientific explanations of human Intelligence and Instead believe that teleology was the cause of evolution. The theory of intelligent evolution was widely accepted alongside Drawing's by the science community up until Wallach's belief of spirituality developed. Although the theories of Darwin and Wallace are very similar, and were even viewed as the same in Darning's eyes, the difference between the two is that Darwin wasn't afraid to publish his and Wallace was.Public opinion of unorthodox theories of evolution at the time were very harsh and close-minded, but publication of these risky theories gave the public an opportunity to open up to modern thinking. The Intelligent mind of Alfred Wallace had been opened up to naturalism through the readings of numerous Influential works. Controversial academic publishin g Like â€Å"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation† and â€Å"Constitution of Man† by George Combo suggested to the public that the environment around man is responsible for hang.More readings such as Charles Lye's Principles of Geology helped Wallace realize that mankind had the potential to change, thus sparking his curiosity and drive to understanding. Alfred Wallace By radicand breakthroughs in history. One of these breakthroughs is Alfred Russell Wallace reputation of greatness upon exploration of Malay Archipelago. Unlike other great intellects like Charles Darwin, Wallace had dropped his formal schooling at the age of fourteen to start providing for his family as a carpenter.Later in life Wallace acquires a Job at the Collegiate school of Leister teaching, and it is here that he spiritualist in 1860 and began to believe in theology. Wallach's new beliefs lead him to reject scientific explanations of human intelligence and instead believe that The intellige nt mind of Alfred Wallace had been opened up to naturalism through the readings of numerous influential works. Controversial academic publishing like Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation† and â€Å"Constitution of Man† by George

Of Mice And Men Creative Writing Essay

The early morning dew on the grass sparkled in the sunlight as it rose from behind the Gabilian mountains. The town of weed was silent, desolate and all you could hear was the flow of the river which was gushing in between the fresh green willows of the Salinas River. The mist was so fine all you could see was the top of the Gabilian Mountains. On the other side of the Salinas River slight dew glistened on the grass, of which there were branches overhanging the green murky pool. On the sandy bank there lay beneath the trees of which had leaves that were brittle from the sunlight. They would make a scurrying noise when the leaves are walked over. Rabbits leap and bound out from their warrens, full of energy from their sleep, going to sit on the golden sand. As the morning became brighter and more alive the wildlife came to arose from the dark to start a fresh new day. There was a vivid path of some sort that went through plants and trees, a path that had been disturbed by boys, men, heavily walking on it coming down from a hard grafts work in the ranches, heading towards the deep pool for a refreshing dip. From another direction there were two shadows of a of a relatively little sized person and a comparatively big in size person. From the shadow of the comparatively big in size person it was very tall and very strongly built and the shadow of the relatively little sized person look less strong and built. The leader of the two men looked as if he was the brain and boss of the large man. He looked like a father figure. Due to the town f weed being deserted the voices of these two men got louder as the came closer to the town of weed. The larger men of the two look as if he was tired and fed up because he was dragging his feet across the path. It looked as if it was an effort carry the weight of the larger man. Sweat was pouring off of him and as they got closer you could here him sighing and saying â€Å"Are we here yet.† â€Å"For Christ sake I have already told you Lennie that we have got a mile to go yet. Stop moaning, walked quicker and we will get there in no time at all!† George said very crossly. â€Å"Why George is it taking so long. Where are we going George? I am thirsty and hot George.† â€Å"Lennie! How many times will I have to say this we are going to Murray and Ready’s to get our work cards so they can give us some work? I can’t believe you forgot already! I only told you like 15 minutes ago!† George looked at Lennie as if he was a little child who couldn’t remember anything. George looked at him with disgust. â€Å"George, George, I am sorry, I really am sorry George.† â€Å"Lennie just shut up and don’t forget it again. I am not going to say it again.† For a little while there was silence. All you could hear was the rustling of the sand and dust from the path. Then George said â€Å"come on its not long now, we will be here soon.† As George and Lennie walked the final part to get to the ranch George told Lennie about his plans for them both to work on the ranch for a little while and collect some money and then get a place of their own with rabbit and chickens and other stuff. But George also told Lennie that he had to be on his best behaviour as they wanted work otherwise he wouldn’t get to tent the rabbits. â€Å"Right Lennie we are here now. Now you wait out side here and don’t move while I get the work cards.† â€Å"Ok George I wont move till you come back.† â€Å"Yeah and be good for gods sake we don’t want the boss to find out what a crazy bastard you are sometimes do we.† Said George. Whilst George was getting the work cards Lennie was sitting down waiting for him. Lennie started to get bored, so his eyes started to wonder the soundings around him. In the corner of his eye he saw something with looked soft, red dress. It was a young girl with her father. She had rosy cheeks and a friendly smile, and luscious red dress. Lennie thought about what George had said for a second, then looked over at the young girl as she walked and sat next to him. Lennie then decided despite what George had told him, to talk to her and say hello. Lennie took at her and saw red dress and could not bear touching it. The dress looked so velvety and so soft. As he touched the dress he startled her, and so she screamed, but he couldn’t let go because it was so silky but the harder he clenched his fists the more he pulled it and the angrier Lennie got, as she tried to get away. As the girl was screaming so loud the father heard and came out but before he had chance to see Lennie, Lennie ran off. George instantly knew that Lennie had done something wrong, so he went in search of Lennie. â€Å"You crazy basted what you go and do that for. It was all going well until you done that!† said George. â€Å"George, George I am sorry, I really am. I tried not to touch. I did George.† Lennie said frightfully as he realised George was very irate with him. George looked at Lennie with anxiety as they ran from the town off Weed. They headed for the forest to make sure anyone that was searching for them wouldn’t find them. â€Å"Bloody hell Lennie I knew that you couldn’t go without getting into trouble. Five minutes I left you for, five bloody minutes. What the hell am I going to do with you?† â€Å"George I couldn’t help it, you know I couldn’t it just looked†¦..† â€Å"JUST STOP THERE LENNIE!† â€Å"Its all ways sorry George, I didn’t mean too. Well now you can sort it out I don’t care!† Lennie looked at George with disappointment, but knew that he had done wrong. All Lennie could reply with was â€Å"I am sorry George, I forgot.† From that point, on there was little sound all the way to the ranch. They walked for miles and miles on end on a long, boring and dusty road. There was not one mutter of a word.